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| خاموشی ابدی فضاهای لایتناهی، مرا به هراس می اندازد |
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آلبرت اینشتین در اوایل قرن بیستم نشان داد جهان اطراف ما چهاربعدی است، متشکل از سه بعد فضا و یک بعد زمان. اما خیلی زود این پرسش مطرح شد که آیا ابعاد بالاتری نیز وجود دارند یا خیر. نظریهپردازان فیزیک سالها است مدلهای ریاضی پیچیدهای را تدوین میکنند تا حدی بر ابعاد عالم بیابند. معروفترین این نظریهها قطعا نظریه ریسمان است که پساز سالها تلاش، هنوز به یک شاهد تجربی بر تایید پیشبینیهایش دست نیافته است. مشکل اینجا است که فیزیکدانان دقیقا نمیدانند چگونه میتوان با ابزارهای سهبعدی موجود، ابعاد بالاتر را اندازهگیری کرد. یک راهحل، استفاده از گرانش است، دوربرد ترین نیروی عالم که میتواند با نفوذ به ابعاد بالاتر، شواهد مورد نیاز فیزیکدانان را فراهم کند. سالهای سال است فیزیکدانان به قانون عکس مجذور فاصله نیوتون مشکوکند و تلاش میکنند با انجام آزمایشهای دقیق بفهمند آیا توان پارامتر فاصله در قانون گرانش عمومی نیوتون عدد صحیح 2 است یا مقادیر اعشاری هم وجود دارد. اگر مقدار اعشاری پیدا شود، قانون گرانش عمومی جدید میتواند بخشی از پدیدههای مبهم اخترشناسی را مانند وجود ماده تاریک بهسادگی توضیح دهد و احتمالا نشانههایی از ابعاد بالاتر را آشکار کند. بهتازگی، دو فیزیکدان هندی و اوکراینی پیشنهاد دادهاند یک روش مناسب استفاده از گرانش، و بررسی حرکت اجرام یک منظومه سیارهای کوچک در آزمایشگاهی فضایی است. تجهیزات پیشرفته و ابزارهای بسیار حساس امروزی موجب شده است فیزیکدانان اسرار بیشتری از این عالم را کشف کنند و جالب اینجا است که روند کشف این اسرار بسیار سریعتر از روند درک آنها است. بشر تاکنون توانسته فقط با 4درصد انرژی درون عالم آشنا شود. 96درصد دیگر را ماده تاریک (26درصد) و انرژی تاریک (70درصد) تشکیل میدهند که انرژی تاریک را هم تنها شش سال است که می شناسیم. یک پیشنهاد برای انرژی تاریک این است که این موجود اصلا چیز عجیبی نیست، بلکه همان گرانش است که در فواصل بسیار دور به شکل دیگری ظاهر شده است. شاید هم یک بعد بالاتر در این میان نقش دارد. ایده رفتار متفاوت گرانش در فواصل دور ایده جدیدی نیست. در دهه 1980، اخترشناسان با بررسی دادههای ارسالی فضاپیماهای پایونیر 10 و 11 متوجه شدند که این فضاپیماها دقیقا در محل پیشبینی شده نیستند. نیرویی بیشتر از گرانش خورشید حرکت آنها را کند کرده بود. متاسفانه پایونیرها در معرض نیروهای مختلفی بودند: بادهای خورشیدی آنها را به پیش میراندند، پرتوهای کیهانی به آنها ضربه میزدند و برخورد با اجرام درون منظومه آنها را به این طرف و آن طرف منحرف میکرد. چنین آزمایشگاه شلوغی برای شناسایی نشانههای ظریف ابعاد بالاتر مناسب نبود. وارون صحنی، اخترفیزیکدان مرکز دروندانشگاهی نجوم و اخترفیزیک پونه، هند و یوری شتانف، عضو هیاتعلمی موسسه فیزیک نظری بگولیوبف در کیف، اوکراین در مقالهای پیشنهاد کردهاند آزمایشگاهی ساخته شود تا نیروی گرانش بدون دخالت نیروهای خارجی آزمایش شود. آزمایشگاه پیشنهادی آنها آپسیس (APSIS) نام دارد که مخفف عبارت منظومه سیارهای مصنوعی در فضا است. آنها در واقع فضاپیمایی به شکل یک منظومه خورشیدی کوچک را پیشنهاد کردهاند که در نقطه دوم لاگرانژی زمین قرار خواهد گرفت، جایی روی خط واصل زمین و خورشید که 1.5 میلیون کیلومتر از زمین دورتر است. گرانش زمین و خورشید در نقطه دوم لاگرانژی به شکلی است که مدار بسیار پایداری با دوره تناوب یک سال ایجاد میکند. فضاپیمای WMAP هماکنون در این ناحیه قرار دارد و تلسکوپ فضایی جیمزوب هم دد سال 2013 به این نقطه پرتاب خواهد شد. این منظومه مصنوعی را فضاپیمایی بزرگ احاطه خواهد کرد که آن را از پرتوهای کیهانی، غبار، بادهای خورشیدی و هر عامل موثر دیگری بر حرکت سیارات کوچک محافظت خواهد کرد. حتی مخزن سوخت فضاپیما که جرمش مرتب کاهش مییابد نیز باید در فاصله دوری از این منظومه قرار بگیرد تا آنها تغییرات گرانش مخزن سوخت را احساس نکنند. وقتی فضاپیما در نقطه دوم لاگرانژی قرار گرفت، سیارات کوچک در مدارهای بیضوی درون پوشش محافظ رها خواهند شد. این سیارات در واقع گویهای استانداردی هستند که در فاصله 10 سانتیمتری جسم مرکزی که کرهای 5 کیلوگرمی است، حرکت میکنند. فضاپیما همچنین به لیزری مجهز خواهد بود تا اگر سیارات حرکت خود را بهدرستی آغاز نکردند و مدارشان شکل کاملی نداشت، با اعمال فشارهای تابشی پرتوهای لیزر مدارشان را تصحیح کند. ابزارهای بسیار حساس نصبشده در فضاپیما در طول چند سال، موقعیت اجرام را با دقت بسیار زیادی زیر نظر خواهد داشت؛ بدین ترتیب هر گونه انحرافی در مدار این سیارات، هرقدر اندک، میتواند به تایید یا رد دیگر مدلهای گرانشی، وجود ابعاد بالاتر، خواص انرژی تاریک و ماده تاریک بیانجامد؛ بهعنوان مثال اگر دقت اندازهگیری انتقال حضیض مدار سیارات به کسری از ثانیهقوس برسد، اندازهگیریها میتواند وجود یا رد بعد پنجم را نشان دهند. اما این طرح تازه ارایه شده و ممکن است سالها طول بکشد تا به مرحله اجرا درآید. تهیه و گردآوری مقاله : ذوالفقار دانشی |
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شنبه 1385/08/27ساعت 1:48 توسط سپهـــر |
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سرانجام انوشه انصاري نخستين ايراني مسافر فضا شد. 9 روز اقامت در ايستگاه فضايي تجربههاي بينظيري را براي او به همراه آورد، از دشواري ورود به شرايط بيوزني، تا اقامت فراموشنشدني در خانه فضايي بشر و فشارهاي سنگين ورود به جوّ زمين. انوشه در حالي به روياي ديرينه خود تحقق بخشيد كه آن را آغاز روياي تازهاي در پروازهاي فضايي خصوصي ميداند.
ادامه مطلب |
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جمعه 1385/08/26ساعت 13:41 توسط سپهـــر |
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فضا پیمای AKARI آژانس فضایی ژاپن در ادامه ماموریت نقشه برداری فرو سرخ از آسمان ، ابرهای ماژلانی را به تصویر کشید.این ابرها همچون ماهواره ای در اطراف کهکشان راه شیری قرار دارند وبا فاصله ای برابر 160 هزار سال نوری از ما در گروه کهکشان های نا منظم طبقه بندی می شوند.
ادامه مطلب |
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پنجشنبه 1385/08/25ساعت 21:15 توسط سپهـــر |
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پنجشنبه 1385/08/25ساعت 20:52 توسط سپهـــر |
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We have reached an extraordinary point in the history of science, for some physicists believe they are now on the verge of having a single theory that will unite all of their science under one mathematical umbrella. In particular this theory would unify the two great bastions of twentieth century physics - the general theory of relativity and quantum theory. Since general relativity describes the large scale, or cosmological, structure of the universe, and quantum theory describes the microscopic, or subatomic, structures, the unification of these theories would explain both the very big and the very small. This theory is often referred to as a "theory of everything". In particular this theory would unify our understanding of all the fundamental physical forces in our universe. There are four such forces that physicists know of: gravity (which keeps planets revolving around their suns, and is responsible for the formation of stars and galaxies), the electromagnetic force (which is responsible for light, heat, electricity, and magnetism; and which is also responsible for holding atoms together), the weak nuclear force (which acts inside atomic nuclei, and is responsible for a certain kind of radioactive decay), and the strong nuclear force (which holds together the protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei, and is therefore crucial to the stability of matter). At the moment, physicists have separate theories for each of these forces, but they would like one unified theory of all four. That goal has partly been realized in that they now have a theory which unifies two of these forces - the electromagnetic and weak forces - but unifying all four is proving to be extremely difficult. Nonetheless, most TOE physicists are confident this goal will be realized in the next few decades. Theoretical physicist, Steven Weinberg, who played a major role in unifying the electromagnetic and weak forces (for which he was awarded the Noble Prize, along with colleagues Abdul Salam and Sheldon Glasgow), has called a theory of all four forces "a final theory." When physicists find this theory, he and others have suggested, then physics will have effectively achieved its end. Now the entire physical universe would be encompassed by a set of equations - or perhaps just one equation. But the question would still remain, what would that equation mean?
برگرفته از : http://www.pbs.org
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سه شنبه 1385/08/23ساعت 8:52 توسط سپهـــر |
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The Standard Model In the standard model of particle physics, particles are considered to be points moving through space, tracing out a line called the World Line. To take into account the different interactions observed in Nature one has to provide particles with more degrees of freedom than only their position and velocity, such as mass, electric charge, color (which is the "charge" associated with the strong interaction) or spin. The standard model was designed within a framework known as Quantum Field Theory (QFT), which gives us the tools to build theories consistent both with quantum mechanics and the special theory of relativity. With these tools, theories were built which describe with great success three of the four known interactions in Nature: Electromagnetism, and the Strong and Weak nuclear forces. Furthermore, a very successful unification between Electromagnetism and the Weak force was achieved (Electroweak Theory), and promising ideas put forward to try to include the Strong force. But unfortunately the fourth interaction, gravity, beautifully described by Einstein's General Relativity (GR), does not seem to fit into this scheme. Whenever one tries to apply the rules of QFT to GR one gets results which make no sense. For instance, the force between two gravitons (the particles that mediate gravitational interactions), becomes infinite and we do not know how to get rid of these infinities to get physically sensible results. String Theory In String Theory, the myriad of particle types is replaced by a single fundamental building block, a `string'. These strings can be closed, like loops, or open, like a hair. As the string moves through time it traces out a tube or a sheet, according to whether it is closed or open. Furthermore, the string is free to vibrate, and different vibrational modes of the string represent the different particle types, since different modes are seen as different masses or spins. One mode of vibration, or `note', makes the string appear as an electron, another as a photon. There is even a mode describing the graviton, the particle carrying the force of gravity, which is an important reason why String Theory has received so much attention. The point is that we can make sense of the interaction of two gravitons in String theory in a way we could not in QFT. There are no infinities! And gravity is not something we put in by hand. It has to be there in a theory of strings. So, the first great achievement of String Theory was to give a consistent theory of quantum gravity, which resembles GR at macroscopic distances. Moreover String Theory also possesses the necessary degrees of freedom to describe the other interactions! At this point a great hope was created that String Theory would be able to unify all the known forces and particles together into a single `Theory of Everything'. From Strings to Superstrings The particles known in nature are classified according to their spin into bosons (integer spin) or fermions (odd half integer spin). The former are the ones that carry forces, for example, the photon, which carries electromagnetic force, the gluon, which carries the strong nuclear force, and the graviton, which carries gravitational force. The latter make up the matter we are made of, like the electron or the quark. The original String Theory only described particles that were bosons, hence Bosonic String Theory. It did not describe Fermions. So quarks and electrons, for instance, were not included in Bosonic String Theory. By introducing Supersymmetry to Bosonic String Theory, we can obtain a new theory that describes both the forces and the matter which make up the Universe. This is the theory of superstrings. There are three different superstring theories which make sense, i.e. display no mathematical inconsistencies. In two of them the fundamental object is a closed string, while in the third, open strings are the building blocks. Furthermore, mixing the best features of the bosonic string and the superstring, we can create two other consistent theories of strings, Heterotic String Theories. However, this abundance of theories of strings was a puzzle: If we are searching for the theory of everything, to have five of them is an embarrassment of riches! Fortunately, M-theory came to save us. Extra dimensions... One of the most remarkable predictions of String Theory is that space-time has ten dimensions! At first sight, this may be seen as a reason to dismiss the theory altogether, as we obviously have only three dimensions of space and one of time. However, if we assume that six of these dimensions are curled up very tightly, then we may never be aware of their existence. Furthermore, having these so-called compact dimensions is very beneficial if String Theory is to describe a Theory of Everything. The idea is that degrees of freedom like the electric charge of an electron will then arise simply as motion in the extra compact directions! The principle that compact dimensions may lead to unifying theories is not new, but dates from the 1920's, since the theory of Kaluza and Klein. In a sense, String Theory is the ultimate Kaluza-Klein theory. For simplicity, it is usually assumed that the extra dimensions are wrapped up on six circles. For realistic results they are treated as being wrapped up on mathematical elaborations known as Calabi-Yau Manifolds and Orbifolds. Apart from the fact that instead of one there are five different, healthy theories of strings (three superstrings and two heterotic strings) there was another difficulty in studying these theories: we did not have tools to explore the theory over all possible values of the parameters in the theory. Each theory was like a large planet of which we only knew a small island somewhere on the planet. But over the last four years, techniques were developed to explore the theories more thoroughly, in other words, to travel around the seas in each of those planets and find new islands. And only then it was realized that those five string theories are actually islands on the same planet, not different ones! Thus there is an underlying theory of which all string theories are only different aspects. This was called M-theory. The M might stand for Mother of all theories or Mystery, because the planet we call M-theory is still largely unexplored. There is still a third possibility for the M in M-theory. One of the islands that was found on the M-theory planet corresponds to a theory that lives not in 10 but in 11 dimensions. This seems to be telling us that M-theory should be viewed as an 11 dimensional theory that looks 10 dimensional at some points in its space of parameters. Such a theory could have as a fundamental object a Membrane, as opposed to a string. Like a drinking straw seen at a distance, the membranes would look like strings when we curl the 11th dimension into a small circle. Black Holes in M-theory Black Holes have been studied for many years as configurations of spacetime in General Relativity, corresponding to very strong gravitational fields. But since we cannot build a consistent quantum theory from GR, several puzzles were raised concerning the microscopic physics of black holes. One of the most intriguing was related to the entropy of Black Holes. In thermodynamics, entropy is the quantity that measures the number of states of a system that look the same. A very untidy room has a large entropy, since one can move something on the floor from one side of the room to the other and no one will notice because of the mess - they are equivalent states. In a very tidy room, if you change anything it will be noticeable, since everything has its own place. So we associate entropy to disorder. Black Holes have a huge disorder. However, no one knew what the states associated to the entropy of the black hole were. The last four years brought great excitement in this area. Similar techniques to the ones used to find the islands of M-theory, allowed us to explain exactly what states correspond to the disorder of some black holes, and to explain using fundamental theory the thermodynamic properties that had been deduced previously using less direct arguments. Many other problems are still open, but the application of string theory to the study of Black Holes promises to be one of the most interesting topics for the next few years. |
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یکشنبه 1385/08/21ساعت 9:57 توسط سپهـــر |
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What is a black hole?
A black hole is a region of spacetime from which nothing can escape, even light. To see why this happens, imagine throwing a tennis ball into the air. The harder you throw the tennis ball, the faster it is travelling when it leaves your hand and the higher the ball will go before turning back. If you throw it hard enough it will never return, the gravitational attraction will not be able to pull it back down. The velocity the ball must have to escape is known as the escape velocity and for the earth is about 7 miles a second. As a body is crushed into a smaller and smaller volume, the gravitational attraction increases, and hence the escape velocity gets bigger. Things have to be thrown harder and harder to escape. Eventually a point is reached when even light, which travels at 186 thousand miles a second, is not travelling fast enough to escape. At this point, nothing can get out as nothing can travel faster than light. This is a black hole. |
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شنبه 1385/08/20ساعت 9:33 توسط سپهـــر |
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اصل عدم قطعيت هايزنبرگ ديدگاه ما را نسبت به رويدادهاي آينده و نحوه پيش گويي رويدادها از طريق قوانين علمي به كلي دگر گون ساخت. اين مطلب در دهه بيست، هايزنبرگ، اروين شرودينگر و پل ديراك را بر آن داشت تا مكانيك را بازسازي نمايند. آنها براساس اصل عدم قطعيت، نظريه جديدي بنام مکانيک کوانتومي تدوي |